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Roman Catholic Church
I Introduction
Roman Catholic Church, the largest single Christian body, composed
of those Christians who acknowledge the supreme authority of the
bishop of Rome, the pope, in matters of faith. The word catholic
(Greek katholikos) means "universal" and has been used
to designate the church since its earliest period, when it was the
only Christian church. The Roman Catholic Church regards itself
as the only legitimate inheritor, by an unbroken succession of bishops
descending from Saint Peter to the present time, of the commission
and powers conferred by Jesus Christ on the 12 apostles. The church
has had a profound influence on the development of European culture
and on the introduction of European values into other civilizations.
Its total membership in the late 1990s was about 1 billion (about
52 percent of the total number of affiliated Christians, or 16 percent
of the world population). The church has its greatest numerical
strength in Europe and Latin America but also has a large membership
in other parts of the world.
II Organization and Structure
In keeping with early Christian traditions, the fundamental unit
of organization in the Roman Catholic Church is the diocese, headed
by a bishop
The church comprises nearly 2,000 dioceses and 561 archdioceses,
which are more distinguished sees (areas of jurisdiction) that have
certain responsibilities for governance in the dioceses attached
to them. The major church in a diocese is the cathedral, where the
bishop presides at worship and other ceremonies. The cathedral contains
the bishop's "throne" or "chair" (Latin cathedra),
from which in the early church he preached to his congregation.
A The Bishop
The bishop is the chief liturgical figure in the diocese and is
distinguished from the priest principally by the power to confer
holy orders and to act as the usual minister of confirmation. The
bishop has the highest jurisdictional powers within the diocese:
He has the right to admit priests to his diocese and to exclude
them from the practice of ministry within it, and he assigns priests
of his diocese to parishes and other duties. The bishop often delegates
administrative details to his vicar-general, his chancellor, or
other officials. In larger dioceses he may be assisted by auxiliary
or coadjutor bishops.
B The Clergy
Directly under the bishop are the clergy, both secular and religious.
Secular clergy are not members of religious orders or congregations
and have permanently been incorporated (incardinated) into the diocese
under the authority of the local bishop. Secular clergy generally
staff the parishes of the diocese and serve as pastors in them.
The religious clergy, on the other hand, are primarily committed
to their orders or congregations, which transcend diocesan boundaries.
While working within a given diocese, these clergy must adhere to
the bishop's decisions in matters of public worship but otherwise
enjoy considerable discretion in their ministry. The same can be
said of nuns (or sisters) and brothers, who are members of orders
or congregations but are not clergy. Religious clergy and laity
tend to staff the schools, hospitals, and other institutions of
mercy and social service in the diocese. Since the Second Vatican
Council in the 1960s, the laity who are not members of religious
orders have assumed an increasingly active role in advising pastors
and bishops, especially in practical matters, and in the pastoral
ministry, such as catechesis (instruction given in preparation for
adult baptism).
C The Pope
At the head of the Roman Catholic Church is the pope, who is the
bishop of Rome. He has final authority in all matters. The pope
appoints bishops to dioceses and transfers them to others. Although
bishops enjoy their jurisdictional powers by reason of their office,
they cannot legitimately exercise them without the permission of
the pope. On September 15, 1965, Pope Paul VI instituted the Synod
of Bishops, a representative body of bishops and others that may
be called by the pope to consult on major issues. The first such
synod met in Vatican City in 1967, and a number of synods have been
held since then. Synods are not to be confused with ecumenical councils,
which are solemn convocations of all the bishops of the world. The
Catholic Church numbers only 21 such councils in its long history,
the most recent being the Second Vatican Council (1962-1965). While
they are in communion with the pope, the councils exercise the highest
authority in the church.
D The Cardinal
Cardinals are the highest dignitaries in the church after the pope.
Appointed by the pope, they constitute the supreme council of the
church, the Sacred College, and on the death of the pope they elect
his successor. Most cardinals are bishops of dioceses located throughout
the world; others are the chief members of the Sacred Congregations
of the papal administration. The Sacred Congregation of Cardinals
was formerly limited to 70 members, but this limit was abolished
by Pope John XXIII in 1958. By 2001 the number of cardinals had
exceeded 180, and all but 24 of the cardinals had been named by
Pope John Paul II.
E The Curia
The Curia assists the pope in his administration of the church.
Of ancient origin, the Curia is located in Vatican City. It is a
complex bureaucracy directed by the Secretariat of State, to which
the various other offices report. These offices now consist of nine
congregations and three tribunals, as well as other councils and
offices.
F Eastern Rite Churches
Although most members of the Roman Catholic Church follow a discipline,
ritual, and canon law that developed in the early years of the diocese
of Rome, others adhere in these matters to their own centuries-old
traditions. These are the Eastern Rite churches, or Uniate churches,
such as the Maronite, Chaldean, Ruthenian, and Ukrainian. Some of
these churches practice Holy Communion under both kinds (the use
of both bread and wine) and baptism by immersion, and allow marriage
of the clergy.
III Distinctive Doctrines
Although the Roman Catholic Church holds certain doctrines that
distinguish it from other Christian churches, it is most characteristic
in the breadth and comprehensiveness of its doctrinal tradition.
Locating its beginnings in the earliest Christian communities and
refusing to acknowledge any decisive break in its history, the Roman
Catholic Church considers itself heir to the theological traditions
of the apostolic, patristic, medieval, and modern periods. The church
does not in principle exclude any theological method, and since
the encyclical of Pope Pius XII Divino Afflante Spiritu (1943) it
has officially sanctioned modern principles of exegesis for interpreting
the Bible. Participation since the Second Vatican Council in the
ecumenical movement has helped Catholics appreciate the doctrinal
viewpoint of the Protestant reformers who broke with the church
in the 16th century.
A The Bible
Like other Christian churches, the Roman Catholic Church accepts
the Bible as the basis for its teaching. This was an unquestioned
assumption until the Reformation, and great theologians such as
the 13th-century Italian Saint Thomas Aquinas taught that "Scripture
alone" was a source for theology. Even while maintaining a
"Scripture alone" position, however, theologians also
held that certain truths or practices (such as infant baptism),
although not found in Scripture, were validated by the tradition
of the church. They agreed, moreover, that the solemn decisions
of the church, especially those that were arrived at by the ecumenical
councils, were authentic interpretations of Christian doctrine and
therefore irrevocably binding on the church.
B Tradition
In reaction to the Protestant insistence during the Reformation
on a seemingly unqualified "Scripture alone" principle,
the Council of Trent affirmed (Fourth Session) that Christian revelation
was contained in "written books" and in "unwritten
traditions." Although this decree speaks at length and almost
exclusively about the Bible, the insertion of the phrase about "unwritten
traditions" was interpreted until recently as indicating a
"two-source" theory.
Today the interpretation of the decree is debated, but its significance
has been somewhat diminished by a general agreement among both Catholic
and Protestant scholars that the books of the New Testament are
themselves the product of various traditions or schools in the early
church.
C Apostolic Succession
Somewhat related to the theological notion of tradition is the doctrine
of apostolic succession-that is, the continuous transmission of
ministry from the time of Jesus until today. The doctrine is found
as early as the Epistle to the Corinthians (about AD 96), traditionally
attributed to Pope Clement I. It is present in a qualified form
in some Protestant churches, but it is more expressly affirmed in
Roman Catholicism. It is identified with the succession of bishops
in office and interpreted as the source of the bishops' authority
and leadership role. The most specific instance of this teaching
is that the pope is the successor of Saint Peter, who was chosen
by Jesus as head of his church (see Matthew 16:16-18). Thus, Catholicism
teaches that the same authority and spiritual gifts operative in
the church today were operative in the apostolic communities.
Almost implicit in this belief in apostolic succession is the belief
that the church has the right and duty to teach Christian doctrine
and morals authoritatively and that the substantial correctness
of this teaching is guaranteed by the continued presence of the
Holy Spirit in the church. Catholic theology locates this authority
in the bishops, the pope, and the ecumenical councils; under certain
circumstances it acknowledges this teaching as infallible. The teaching
authority of the church is referred to collectively as the magisterium,
a term that came into common use in the 19th century.
D The Church
Because of Catholic emphasis on the abiding presence of the Holy
Spirit in the church, Catholic theology has given more attention
to ecclesiology than has the theology of other Christian bodies.
Trying to correct an excessively juridical concept of the church,
the Second Vatican Council consistently spoke of it as a mystery
and favored images such as the "people of God" to describe
it. Fundamental to Catholic belief in all ages has been the assumption
that God's love and grace are mediated to the world in a uniquely
efficacious way through the ministry of the church.
E Saints
With greater enthusiasm than other Western churches, Roman Catholicism
fosters the veneration of the saints and especially of Mary. In
1854 Pope Pius IX proclaimed the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception
of Mary, and in 1950 Pope Pius XII proclaimed her assumption. Often
criticized for letting veneration of the saints obscure the worship
due God, the church has tried to limit it, for instance by reducing
the number of saints whose feasts are observed in the liturgy. Catholics
also believe that they can help by their prayers and good works
those who have died without being fully purified of their sins.
This belief is closely associated with the doctrines of purgatory
and indulgence.
IV Worship and Practices
The celebration of the Eucharist, commonly referred to as the Mass,
is the center of Catholic worship. Catholics are expected to be
present at Mass every Sunday and on a few major feast days during
the year. Mass is also celebrated daily in most churches and is
the essential element of the service at marriages, funerals, and
other Catholic observances.
A The Mass
The Mass consists of two principal parts, namely the liturgy of
the Word and the liturgy of the Eucharist during which Holy Communion
is distributed. Within this set structure considerable variation
is possible in the use of music, pageantry, and other devices to
render the service appropriate for a given occasion.
This potential for variation is graphically illustrated in the history
of the Mass and in the differences that exist today between the
Roman rite and the rites of the Eastern churches. Major changes
were made in the Roman rite by the Second Vatican Council in its
decree Sacrosanctum Concilium (December 4, 1963). The general tendency
of these changes was to excise accretions to the liturgy that obscured
its purpose and basic outline. Of all the provisions legislated
or inspired by the council, none was more dramatic than the translation
of the liturgy and rites of the church from their traditional Latin
language into modern vernaculars (spoken languages).
B Sacraments
The Eucharist is one of the seven sacraments, which are the most
important liturgical rites of the church through which participants
experience God's love and power. Catholics believe in the real presence
of Christ in the Eucharist through the change of bread and wine
into his body and blood (transubstantiation) and are encouraged
to receive the Eucharist at every Mass in which they participate.
The other sacraments are baptism, confirmation, penance, holy orders,
matrimony, and the anointing of the sick. Catholic theology teaches
that these signs, instituted by Christ, effect their spiritual benefit
on the recipient independent of the faith or virtue of the minister
(ex opere operato).
Liturgical reforms after the Second Vatican Council revised the
sacrament of penance to shift attention away from confession of
a detailed list of sins to the healing nature of the divine mercy
mediated through the sacrament. To highlight these purposes the
alternative term sacrament of reconciliation was devised. Besides
other revisions in sacramental rites, the council determined that
the anointing of the sick should be administered in every serious
illness or old age and not be delayed until the point of death.
Hence, it should no longer be called extreme (last) unction.
The minister for the sacrament of matrimony is not the officiating
priest, as is usually thought, but the bride and groom themselves.
The bond this sacrament creates between two baptized persons cannot,
according to Catholic theology, be dissolved. Numerous prior conditions
exist for a valid bond, however, so that it is sometimes possible
for the church to declare, after examination, that a marriage was
null and void from the beginning. Often viewed as the Catholic equivalent
of divorce, annulment is based on different principles. The church
teaches that the purpose of matrimony is to foster mutual love and
procreate children.
C Other Practices
Catholics express piety in many ways in addition to the Mass and
sacraments. The rosary of the Virgin Mary, for instance, is still
a popular devotion. In recent years the strict obligation to fast
and to abstain from meat on certain days has been made optional,
but it is still observed by many. Although the earlier insistence
of bishops, especially in the United States, that children be sent
to schools operated by the church has been abandoned, many Catholics
continue to do so, maintaining a strong system of elementary and
secondary education. Throughout the world the church sponsors a
number of universities and an even larger number of faculties of
theology. The church is directly or indirectly responsible for an
immense number of publications that range from popular journalism
to highly sophisticated scholarship.
D Current Issues
The Roman Catholic Church has been characterized in modern times
by strong positions on some controversial issues. Beginning with
the encyclical Rerum Novarum (1891) of Pope Leo XIII, the popes
have consistently decried the injustices of the economic and social
conditions created by modern industrial societies and proposed remedies
for them. They have denounced nuclear warfare, repeatedly urged
an end to the arms race, and sought to halt the exploitation of
poor nations by rich ones. The protection and promotion of basic
human rights in the social, economic, and political orders have
been central to these pronouncements. In Latin America some Catholic
intellectuals have developed a new theology, known as liberation
theology, to address these concerns.
At the Second Vatican Council the church encouraged Catholics to
work with members of other religions for common human goals and
for the reunion of the various Christian churches. Although the
Roman Catholic Church has never joined the World Council of Churches,
it does maintain contact with it. In recognition of the genuine
spiritual values in other religions, Catholic missionary practice
since the council has been modified from proselytizing to a dialogue
more respectful of those values.
On certain other issues the church has been more conservative but
no less forceful. The prohibition of "artificial" means
of birth control was reiterated by Pope Paul VI in his encyclical
Humanae Vitae (1968). This document provoked objections in some
theological circles and even among some bishops-a unique phenomenon
for the modern papacy. Although its import continues to be debated,
it is certainly the most authoritative statement on the issue. The
Roman Catholic Church has been a fierce opponent of liberalized
abortion laws and has inspired political resistance to such legislation
in several Western countries. Although the church permits women
under certain circumstances to administer the Eucharist and perform
some other ministries, it has not allowed them to be ordained priests
or deacons. For priests of the Roman rite, marriage is strictly
forbidden. In recent years the sexual abuse of minors by members
of the clergy has become an issue of major concern in some European
countries as well as the United States. In 2002 the United States
Conference of Catholic Bishops approved a Charter for the Protection
of Young People and Children. The Vatican, however, withheld approval
of the charter, citing potential conflicts between the plan's policies
and church law, and requested that discussions be held to modify
and clarify certain parts of the charter.
V History
Until the break with the Eastern church in 1054 and the break with
the Protestant churches in the 16th century, it is impossible to
separate the history of the Roman Catholic Church from the history
of Christianity in general. The distinct Roman Catholic view of
history, however, is its claim to unbroken continuity with the church
of the New Testament and its consequent acceptance as legitimate
of the major developments in doctrine and structure that it has
assimilated since then. The great shifts in culture, theology, and
discipline within Christian history are not necessarily viewed,
therefore, as deviations from some absolute norm of the apostolic
church. They tend to be viewed, rather, as expressions in different
and more elaborate ways of impulses that were already present from
the beginning.
A The Early Church
The first great change in Christian history was Christianity's
spread from Palestine to the rest of the Mediterranean world in
the first few decades after Jesus' death
Within a short time Christianity had adopted the language and philosophical
vocabulary of the Greco-Roman world to express its message, and
it also adopted some procedural and organizational practices of
the Roman Empire. Nonetheless, the characteristically Christian
figure of the bishop had clearly emerged by the middle of the 2nd
century. The recognition of the church by Emperor Constantine the
Great in 313 consolidated these developments and gave the church
support in the great doctrinal controversies of the 4th and 5th
centuries that determined orthodoxy. By the time of 5th-century
pope Leo I, the bishop of Rome was claiming and to some extent was
exercising a primacy of leadership over the other churches .
B The Medieval Church
The decline of the Roman Empire in the West and the assimilation
of the Germanic peoples into the church had great impact on all
aspects of religious life, including a diminution of episcopal (bishops')
authority from the 7th to the 11th century. Under the leadership
of a reformed papacy in the late 11th century, however, episcopal
rights were restored amid the bitter Investiture Controversy waged
by the papacy with various rulers in Europe. As a result, the papacy
emerged as the acknowledged leader of the Western church, possessing
a centralizing and increasingly efficient Curia. Canon law was revitalized
and implemented, with an emphasis on the role of the papacy in governing
the church. These developments, plus the Crusades, made reconciliation
with the Eastern church more difficult after the Great Schism of
1054.
C The Modern Period
Partly in reaction to the changes resulting from the Investiture
Controversy, the Protestant Reformation broke out in the 16th century.
The Catholic Church responded during the era of the Counter Reformation
by reaffirming the traditions that had developed through the ages
and especially by emphasizing those elements that were most under
attack, such as Scholastic theology , the efficacy of the sacraments,
and the primacy of the pope. The attacks against the church inspired
by the 18th-century Enlightenment and the French Revolution (1789-1799)
were largely responsible for the defensive postures adopted by Catholicism
in the 19th century. The Second Vatican Council reversed this trend.
Although the changes introduced by the council did engender confusion
for some Catholics, the church has remained fundamentally stable
and flourishing in many parts of the world. The ecumenical process
of reaching out to other faiths, begun in the 1960s, continued during
the remainder of the 20th century through papal visits and dialogues.
Pope John Paul II sought to end the schism that has split the Roman
Catholic and Eastern Orthodox traditions for nearly 1,000 years.
A series of dialogues were held between the leaders of the two churches
in an effort to find common ground. John Paul also reached out to
other groups, reaching accord in 1999 with the Lutheran World Federation
on the means of salvation-an issue that had led Martin Luther to
break from the Catholic Church in the early 1500s. Papal visits
to sacred sites in Israel and in Islamic countries were intended
to smooth relations with Judaism and Islam. In a further effort
to heal relations, in the year 2000 John Paul issued a series of
apologies for past errors of Roman Catholics.
VI The Church in the United States
The history of Catholicism in the United States began with the
Spanish conquest of Central and South America in the 16th century.
During the course of this conquest Spain began to colonize regions
north of Mexico. Missionaries, mainly Spanish Franciscans and Jesuits,
were a central part of these expeditions. From the middle of the
16th century to the end of the 18th century they established settlements
in what are now the states of Florida, Texas, New Mexico, and California.
These settlements became the centers for an intense effort to Christianize
the Native American population living in those regions. French missionaries
during the same time were evangelizing the Native Americans living
along the banks of the St. Lawrence River, in areas that are now
Maine and northern New York, and even around the Great Lakes and
in the Mississippi River valley. Before 1789 Catholics living in
the colonies of Maryland and Pennsylvania were under the jurisdiction
of the vicar apostolic of London, but in that year a see was established
in Baltimore, and on August 15, 1790, American prelate John Carroll
was ordained as its first bishop.
During the 19th century the tide of immigrants from Ireland, Germany,
Italy, and elsewhere swelled the ranks of the Roman Catholic communion,
and the Catholic population of the United States, which had been
35,000 in 1790, increased to 195,000 in 1820, about 1.6 million
in 1850, and about 12 million in 1900. In the year 2000 the estimated
Roman Catholic population of the United States had reached 63.6
million. During the same period, the U.S. Catholic hierarchy was
composed of 11 cardinals (increasing to 13 in 2001), 45 archbishops,
373 bishops, and 46,075 priests. The total number of Roman Catholic
parishes was 19,544. The church maintained 218 seminaries for the
training of the clergy. Other educational institutions under Roman
Catholic sponsorship were about 7,000 elementary schools, about
1,600 high schools, and 235 colleges and universities; the total
number of students enrolled in these institutions was about 3.5
million.
VII The Church in Canada
Catholicism in Canada began with the colonization of New France
in the 17th century. New France was a Catholic colony stretching
from the St. Lawrence River to the western Great Lakes. French missionaries,
most notably the Jesuits, evangelized the native Indian population,
setting up mission towns throughout New France. The first Canadian
martyrs were a number of Jesuits killed by Indians in the 1640s.
François Xavier de Laval-Montmorency was the chief religious
authority in New France from 1659 to 1684. A Jesuit priest, he was
ordained the first bishop of Québec in 1674. Because New
France was a Catholic colony, the clergy had charge of education,
hospitals, and welfare; and the state enforced tithes and gave the
church land and money. After the British conquest of New France
in 1760, opposition to the church arose, but the Québec Act
(1774) opened public office to Catholics and authorized continuation
of tithes.
As a result of 19th- and 20th-century immigration, the Roman Catholic
Church in Canada grew rapidly, and it was removed from mission status
in 1908. The newcomers, however, changed its character. Irish immigration
in the early 1800s reduced the French Canadians to a minority among
Catholics outside Québec and led to conflict over language
and episcopal appointments. Such tension continued in the 20th century
with the arrival of southern and eastern Europeans. In the late
1990s the Roman Catholic Church was the largest religious group
in the country: 45 percent of all Canadians were Catholic. In 2000
there were about 9,600 priests and 5,681 parishes spread throughout
18 archdioceses and 45 dioceses.
Reviewed By:
Jay P. Dolan, Ph.D.
Professor of History, University of Notre Dame. Author of The American
Catholic Experience: From Colonial Times to the Present.
Further Reading
Source
"Roman Catholic Church," Microsoft® Encarta® Online
Encyclopedia 2002
http://encarta.msn.com © 1997-2002 Microsoft Corporation. All
Rights Reserved.
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