| Congregationalism
The retention by the Anglican State Church of the
prelatical form of government and of many Catholic rites and ceremonies
offensive to genuine Protestants resulted in the formation of innumerable
Puritan factions, with varying degrees of radicalism. The violent
measures adopted by Elizabeth and the Stuarts to enforce conformity
caused the more timid and moderate of the Puritans to remain in
communion with the State Church, though keeping up to the present
day an incessant protest against "popish tendencies";
but the more advanced and daring of their leaders began to perceive
that there was no place for them in a Church governed by a hierarchy
and enslaved to the civil power. To many of them, Geneva was the
realization of Christ's kingdom on earth, and, influenced by the
example of neighboring Scotland, they began to form churches on
the model of Presbyterianism (q.v.). Many, however, who had withdrawn
from the "tyranny" of the episcopate, were loath to submit
to the dominion of presbyteries and formed themselves into religious
communities acknowledging "no head, priest, prophet or king
save Christ". These dissenters were known as "Independents"
and in spite of fines, imprisonments, and the execution of at least
five of their leaders, they increased steadily in numbers and influence,
until they played a conspicuous part in the revolution that cost
Charles I his crown and life. The earliest literary exponent of
Independence was Robert Brown, from whom the dissenters were nicknamed
Brownists. Brown was born in 1550, of a good family, in Rutlandshire,
and studied at Cambridge. About 1580 he began to circulate pamphlets
in which the State Church was denounced in unmeasured terms and
the duty was inculcated of separating from communion with it. The
godly were not to look to the State for the reform of the Church;
they must set about it themselves on the Apostolic model. Brown
defines the Church as a "company or number of Christians or
believers, who, by a willing covenant made with their God, are under
the government of God and Christ, and keep his laws in one holy
communion". This new gospel attracted numerous adherents. A
congregation was formed in Norwich, which grew rapidly. Summoned
before the bishop's court, Brown escaped the consequences of his
zeal through the intervention of his powerful relation, Lord Burghley,
and, with his followers, migrated to Holland, the common refuge
of the persecuted reformers of all Europe. The Netherlands were
soon flooded with refugees from England, and large congregations
were established in the principal cities. The most flourishing Independent
Church was that of Leyden under the direction of John Robinson.
It was to this congregation that the "Pilgrim Fathers"
belonged, who in 1620 set sail in the Mayflower for the New World.
The successful establishment of the New England colonies
was an event of the utmost importance in the development of Congregationalism,
a term preferred by the American Puritans to Independency and gradually
adopted by their coreligionists in Great Britain. Not only was a
safe haven now opened to the fugitives from persecution, but the
example of orderly communities based entirely on congregational
principles, "without pope, prelate, presbytery, prince or parliament",
was a complete refutation of the charge advanced by Anglicans and
Presbyterians that Independency meant anarchy and chaos, civil and
religious. In the Massachusetts settlements, "the New England
way", as it was termed, developed, not indeed without strifes
and dissensions, but without external molestation. They formed,
from the Puritan standpoint, the veritable kingdom of the saints;
and the slightest expression of dissent from the Gospel was punished
by the ministers was punished with scourging, exile, and even death.
The importance of stamping out Nonconformity in the American colonies
did not escape the vigilance of Archbishop Laud; he had concerted
measures with Charles I for imposing the episcopacy upon them, when
war broke out between the king and the Parliament. During the Civil
War in England, though few in number compared with the Presbyterians,
they grew in importance through the ability of their leaders, notably
of Oliver Cromwell who gained for them the ascendancy in the army
and the Commonwealth. In the Westminster Assembly convened by the
Long Parliament in 1643, Independency was ably represented by five
ministers, Thomas Goodwin, Philip Nye, Jeremiah Burroughs, William
Bridge and Sidrach Simpson, known as "The Five Dissenting Brethren",
and ten or eleven laymen. They all took a prominent part in the
debates of the Assembly, pleading strongly for toleration at the
hands of the Presbyterian majority. They adopted the doctrinal articles
of the Westminster Confession with slight modifications; but as
there could be no basis of agreement between them and the Presbyterians
regarding church government, a meeting of "elders and messengers"
of "the Congregational churches" was held at the Savoy
in 1658 and drew up the famous "Savoy Declaration", which
was also accepted in New England and long remained as authoritative
as such a document could be in a denomination which, theoretically,
rejected all authority. From this Declaration we obtain a clear
idea of the Congregationalist notion of the Church.
The elect are called individually by the Lord, but
"those thus called (through the ministry of the word by His
Spirit) he commandeth to walk together in particular Societies or
Churches, for their mutual edification and the due performance of
that Public Worship which He requireth of them in this world".
Each of these particular churches is the Church in the full sense
of the term and is not subject to any outside jurisdiction. The
officers of the church, pastors, teachers, elders, and deacons,
are "chosen by the common suffrage of the church itself, and
solemnly set apart by fasting and prayer, with imposition of hands
of the eldership of that church, if there be any before constituted
therein"; the essence of the call consists in election by the
Church. To preserve harmony, no person ought to be added to the
Church without the consent of the Church itself. The Church has
power to admonish and excommunicate disorderly members, but this
power of censure "is to be exercised only towards particular
members of each church as such". "In case of difficulties
or differences, either in point of doctrine or administration, wherein
either the churches in general are concerned, or any one church,
in their peace, union, and edification, or any member or members
of any church are injured in or by any proceeding in censures not
agreeable to truth and order, it is according to the mind of Christ
that many churches holding one communion together do by their messengers
meet in a Synod or Council to consider and give their advice in
or about that matter in difference, to be reported to all the churches
concerned: Howbeit, these Synods so assembled are not entrusted
with any church power properly so called, or with any jurisdiction
over the churches themselves, to exercise any censures, either over
any churches or persons, or to impose their determination on the
churches or officers." If any person, for specified reasons,
be dissatisfied with his church, "he, consulting with the church,
or the officer or officers thereof, may peaceably depart from the
communion of the church wherewith he hath so walked, to join himself
to some other church". Finally it is stated that "churches
gathered and walking according to the mind of Christ, judging other
churches (though less pure) to be true churches, may receive unto
occasional communion with them such members of these churches as
are credibly testified to be godly and to live without offense".
Such are the main principles of Congregationalism
regarding the constitution of the church; in doctrine the Congregational
teachers were, for the most part, strictly Calvinistic. Independent
ascendancy came to an abrupt close at the death of Cromwell and
the restoration of Charles II. The Presbyterians, who had seated
the Stuart on his throne, might hope for his favour; there was slight
prospect that he would tolerate the democratic tenets of Congregationalism.
As a matter of fact Charles and his servile parliament persecuted
both forms of dissent. A succession of severe edicts, the Corporation
Act, 1661, the Act of Uniformity, 1662, the Conventicle Act, 1663,
renewed, 1670, the Five-Mile Act, 1665, and the Test Act, 1673,
made existence almost impossible to Nonconformists of all shades
of belief. Yet in spite of persecution, they held out until the
eighteenth century brought toleration and finally freedom. It is
characteristic of the Puritans that, notwithstanding the sufferings
they had undergone they spurned the indulgence offered by James
II, because it tolerated popery; in fact, they were more zealous
than the rest of the nation in driving James from the throne. The
exclusion of Dissenters from the British universities created a
serious problem for the Congregationalists as well as for the Catholics;
to the sacrifices which these and other denominations out of communion
with the State Church made for the maintenance of academies and
colleges conducted according to their respective principles, England,
like America, owes that great boon so essential to the well-being
of civilized nations, freedom of education. During the eighteenth
century, while the clergy of the Established Church, educated and
maintained by the State, were notoriously incapable and apathetic,
whatever there was of spiritual energy in the nation emanated from
the denominational colleges.
Congregational Unions
The Congregational churches were at their best while
the pressure of persecution served to cement them; this removed,
the absence of organization left them an easy prey to the inroads
of rationalism and infidelity. Before the end of the eighteenth
century many of them lapsed into Unitarianism, alike in England
and America. A new problem was thus forced upon them, viz. how to
maintain the unity of the denomination without consciously violating
their fundamental doctrine of the entire independence of each particular
church. "A Congregational Union of England and Wales",
formed in 1833 and revised in 1871, issued a "Declaration of
the Faith, Church Order, and Discipline of the Congregational or
Independent Dissenters", and provided for annual meetings and
a president who should hold office for a year. American Congregationalism
has always been of a more organic character. While persisting in
emphasizing the complete independence of particular churches, it
has made ample provision, at the expense of consistency, for holding
the denomination together. No minister is admitted except upon approval
of the clerical "association" to which he must belong.
To be acknowledged as Congregationalist, a new community must be
received into fellowship by the churches of its district. Should
a church fall into serious error, or tolerate and uphold notorious
scandals, the other churches may withdraw their fellowship, and
it ceases to be recognized as Congregationalist. If a minister is
found guilty of gross heresy or evil life, a council summoned to
examine his case may, if necessary, withdraw from him the fellowship
of the churches. The statements of Henry M. Dexter, D.D., the historian
of his sect ("American Encyclopedia", s.v. "Congregationalism"),
prove that there is a marked contrast between Congregational theory
and practice. The Congregationalists have been very active in home
and foreign mission work and possess eight theological seminaries
in the United States, viz. Andover, Massachusetts; Atlanta, Georgia;
Bangor, Maine; New Haven and Hartford, Connecticut; Oberlin, Ohio;
Chicago, Illinois; and the Pacific, Berkeley, California. Since
1871 national councils, composed of delegates from all the States
of the Union, are convened every third year. "The Congregational
Handbook for 1907" gives the following statistics of the denomination
in America: Churches 5931; ministers 5933; members 668,736. Included
in this count are Cuba with 6 ministers and 636 members and Porto
Rico with 3 ministers and 50 members. In England and Wales the statistics
for 1907 were: sittings 1,801,447; communicants 498,953; ministers
3197; local preachers 5603. The efforts made in recent years to
find a basis for some kind of corporate union between the Congregationalists,
the Methodist Protestants, and the United Brethren in Christ have
not been successful.
J.F. LOUGHLIN
Transcribed by Robert H. Sarkissian
Walker, A History of the Congregational Churches
in the United States (New York, 1894); Idem, The Creeds and Platforms
of Congregationalism (ibid., 1893); Dexter, The Congregationalism
of the last 300 years, as seen in its Literature (ibid., 1880).
Each of these works contains a good bibliography.
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